Document Type : Review Paper
Authors
1 College of pharmacy- university of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq
2 College of medicine- Hawler medical university
10.37652/juaps.2022.176438
Abstract
One of the most problematic health issues nowadays is the prevalence of nosocomial diseases which is one of the most important health problems in the world and till now there are no series solutions. There are several types of nosocomial infection such as; Infections of the bloodstream caused by a central line (CLABSI), Infections of the Urinary Tract Caused by Catheters (CAUTI), Infections at the Site of Surgery (SSI), and Pneumonia linked with Ventilators (VAP).
All these types caused by one or more type of biological agent such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Uncontrolled use of drugs and disregard for health preventative techniques will result in significant health troubles, such as an increase in antibiotic resistance, which the medical community views as a major concern. The most urgent problem facing the medical profession at the moment is the existence of bacteria with genetic traits that allow them to resist antibiotics. It is now necessary to utilize extra antibiotics or a combination of antibiotics to treat many straightforward illnesses that could previously be treated with simple antibiotics.
To lessen the harmful repercussions that might arise in the future from failing to pay attention to this problem, several efforts and activities must be done to restrict the spread of nosocomial diseases. Also, should awareness the people to avoid using antibiotics unless absolutely essential. On the other hand, it would be advisable to pass legislation requiring a prescription from a licensed medical expert before any prescriptions may be filled at a pharmacy or drug store.
Keywords
Main Subjects
[1] Geffers C, Sohr D, Gastmeier P: Mortality attributable to hospital acquired infections among surgical patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008; 29: 1167–70 .DOI: 10.1086/592410
[2] Aranaz-Andres JM, Aibar-Remon C, Vitaller-Murillo J, et al Incidence of adverse events related to health care in Spain: results of the Spanish National Study of Adverse Events. J Epidemiol Community Health 2008; 62: 1022–9 DOI: 10.1136/jech.2007.065227
[3] S. Krishna Prakash [2014] Nosocomial infection-an overview.
[4] WHO, Clean Care is Safer Care www.who.int/gpsc
[5] Allegranzi B, Nejad S. B, Combescure C, Graafmans W, Attar H, Donaldson L, Pittet D. Burden of endemic health care-associated infection in developing countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet, 2011, 377:228–241. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61458-4
[6] Gupta A, Singh DK, Krutarth B, Maria N, Srinivas R. Prevalence of health care associated infections in a tertiary care hospital in Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka: a hospital based cross sectional study. Int J Med Res Health Sci 2015; 4(2): 317-21. DOI: 10.5958/2319-5886.2015.00059.4
[7] Nosocomial infections: Epidemiology, prevention, control and surveillance Hassan Ahmed Khan1, Fatima Kanwal Baig, Riffat Mehboob Abbottabad, University of Science and Technology (AUST), Abbottabad, Pakistan National University of Science and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan Biomedical Sciences, King Edward Medical University, Lahore, Pakistan. DOI10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.01.019
[8] Vital signs: Central line–associated blood stream infections United States, 2001, 2008, and 2009. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep; 2011.
[9] WHO. Preventing bloodstream infections from central line catheters. Geneva: WHO; 2016. (Online) Available from: venous http://www.who.int/patientsafety/implementation/bsi/en/ (Accessed on August,2016)
[10] CDC. Bloodstream infection event [central line-associated blood stream infection and non central line-associated bloodstream :infection]. Atlanta, Georgia: CDC; 2015. (Online) Available from http://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/pdfs/pscmanual/4psc_clabscurrent.pdf (Accessed on 10th August, 2016)
[11] warren JW.catheter – associated urinary tract infection Int Antimicrob Agents 2001;17(4):299-303. DOI: 10.1016/s0924-8579(00)00359-9
[12] Anderson DJ. Surgical site infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2011;25(1):135-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2010.11.004
[13] Hunter JD. Ventilator associated pneumonia. BMJ 2012; 344: 40-4. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.e3325
[14] Steven M, Koenig JDT. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: diagnosis,treatment, and prevention. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006; 19(4)637- 57 DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00051-05
[15] Hjalmarson DEC. Ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis and ;pneumonia:thinking outside the box.Clin lnfect Dis 2010 suppl 1]:S59- 66]. DOI: 10.1086/653051
[16] Review article http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.01.019 Nosocomial infections: Epidemiology, prevention, control and surveillance Hassan Ahmed Khan1, Fatima Kanwal Baig, Riffat Mehboob Abbottabad University of Science and Technology [AUST], Abbottabad, Pakistan. National University of Science and Technology [NUST], Islamabad, Pakistan Biomedical Sciences, King Edward Medical University, Lahore, Pakistan].
[17] Gatermann S, Funfstuck R, Handrick W, Leitritz L, Caber KG, Podbielski A. (MIQ 02: Urinary Tract Infections: Quality standards for microbiological infections). Munchen: Urban & Fischer; 2005, p. 8-21. German
[18] Horan TC, Andrus M, Dudeck MA. CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care-associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36(5): 309-32. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2008.03.002
[19] Suresh G, Joshi GML. Acinetobacter baumannii: an emerging pathogenic threat to public health. World J Clin Infect Dis 2013; 3(3): 25-36. doi: 10.5495/wjcid.v3.i3.25. doi:10.5495/wjcid.v3.i3.25
[20] Jayanthi A. Most common healthcare-associated infections: 25 bacteria, viruses causing HAIs, Becker's hospital review. 2014.
[21] CDC. Diseases and organisms in healthcare settings. Healthcare associated infections (HAIs). Atlanta, Georgia: CDC; 2016. (Online) Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/hai/organisms/ organisms.html (Accessed on 10th August, 2016).
[22] Klein E, Smith DL, Laxminarayan R. Hospitalizations and deaths caused by methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, United States, 1999- 2005. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13(12): 1840-6. DOI: 10.3201/eid1312.070629
[23] Gordon RJ, Lowy FD. Pathogenesis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46(Suppl 5): S350-9. DOI: 10.1086/533591
[24] Aitken CJD. Nosocomial spread of viral disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14(3): 528-46. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.14.3.528-546.2001
[25] Ducel JF, Nicolle L. Prevention of hospital-acquired infections. Geneva: WHO; 2002
[26] Emily RM, Sydnor TMP. Hospital epidemiology and infection control in acute-care settings. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24(1): 141- 73. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00027-10
[27] Elliott C , Justiz-Vaillant A. Nosocomial Infections: A 360-degree Review.international biological and biomedical journal. Volume 4, issue 2, 2018. ID:56566932.
[28] Kutlesa M, Santini M, Krajinovic V, Papic N, Novokmet A, Mraovic RJ, Barsic B. Nosocomial blood stream infections in patients treated with venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Minerva Anestesiol. 2017; 83:493-501. DOI: 10.23736/S0375-9393.17.11659-7
[29] Stevens D L, Bisno a L, Chambers H F, Everett ED, Dellinger P, Goldstein, EJC, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan E, Montoya GJ, Wade JC. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014; 59:e10-52. DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciu296
[30] Medina-Polo J, Guerrero-Ramos F, Perez-Cadavid S, Arrébola-Pajares A, Benítez-Sala R , Jiménez-Alcaide R , García-González L , Alonso-Isa M, Lara-Isla A , Passas-Martínez JB , Tejido-Sánchez A .Community-associated urinary infections requiring hospitalization: risk factors, microbiological characteristics and patterns of antibiotic resistance. Actas Urol Esp. 2015; 39:104- 11. DOI: 10.1016/j.acuro.2014.08.001
[31] Bader M S, Loeb M, Brooks a A. An update on the management of urinary tract infections in the era of antimicrobial. resistance. Postgrad Med. 2017; 129:242-58. DOI: 10.1080/00325481.2017.1246055
[32] Durand M L, Calderwood S B, Weber D J, Miller SI, Southwick FS , Caviness Jr VS, Swartz MN et al. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults. A review of 493 episodes. N Engl. J Med. 1993;328:21-8. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199301073280104
[33] Nau R, Sorgel F, Eiffert H. Penetration of drugs through the blood-cerebrospinal fluid/blood-brain barrier for treatment of central nervous system infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23:858-83. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00007-10
[34] Moet G J, Jones R N, Biedenbach D J, Stilwell M G, Fritsche T R. Contemporary causes of skin and soft tissue infections in North America, Latin America, and Europe: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1998-2004). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2007; 57:7-13. DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2006.05.009
[35] Nadimpalli M, Stewart J R, Pierce E, Pisanic N, C. Love D, Hall D, Larsen J, C. Carroll K, Tekle T, M. Perl T, D. Heaney C Livestock Associated, Antibiotic-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Nasal Carriage and Recent Skin and Soft Tissue Infection among Industrial Hog Operation Workers. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0165713. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0165713
[36] Terpenning M. Geriatric oral health and pneumonia risk. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 40:1807-10. DOI: 10.1086/430603
[37] Das B, Sarkar C, Das D, Gupta A, Kalra A, Sahni S Telavancin: a novel semisynthetic lipoglycopeptide agent to counter the challenge of .resistant Gram-positive pathogens. The Adv Infect Dis 2017;4:49-Fischer; 73. DOI: 10.1177/2049936117690501
[38] Ducel JF, Nicolle L. Prevention of hospital-acquired infections. Med J Armed Forces India. 2004 Jul; 60(3): 312. doi: 10.1016/S0377-1237(04)80079-0.
[39] CDC. HAI data and statistics. Healthcare-associated infections. Atlanta, Georgia: CDC; 2016. (Online) Available from: http:// www.cdc.gov/HAI/surveillance/index.html (Accessed on 10th August, 2016)
[40] Colgan R. Appropriate antimicrobial prescribing: approaches that limit antibiotic resistance. Am Fam Physician 2001; 64(6): 999- 1005. PMID: 11578036
[41] Leekha S, Edson RS. General principles of antimicrobial therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 2011; 86(2): 156-67. DOI: 10.4065/mcp.2010.0639
[42] Singh PK. Antibiotics, handle with care. Geneva: WHO; 2016. [Online] Available from: http://www.searo.who.int/mediacentre/ releases/2015/antibiotics-awareness-week-2015/en/ [Accessed on 10th August, 2016]
[43] WHO. Antimicrobial resistance. Geneva: WHO; 2014. (Online) Available from: http://www.searo.who.int/thailand/factsheets/ fs0023/en/ (Accessed on 10th August, 2016).
[44] WHO. WHO's first global report on antibiotic resistance reveals serious, worldwide threat to public health. Geneva: WHO; 2014.
[45] About Antimicrobial Resistance. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; https://www.cdc.govdrugresistance/about.html (Accessed on May 22, 2017)
[46] Blair JMA, Webber MA, Baylay AJ, Ogbolu DO, Piddock LJV .Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Nat Rev Micro. 2015; 13:42–51. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3380
[47] Lin J, Nishino K, Roberts MC, Tolmasky M, Aminova RI, and Zhang L. Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Front Microbiology. 2015; 6:34. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00034
[48] Chellat MF, Raguz L, Riedl R. Targeting Antibiotic Resistance. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2016; 55:6600–26. (PubMed: 27000559). DOI: 10.1002/anie.201506818
[49] Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Bradley JS, et al. Bad bugs, no drugs: no ESKAPE! An update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009; 48:1–12. (PubMed: 19035777). DOI: 10.1086/595011
[50] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [accessed on January 16, 2017] Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States. 2013. http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/threat-report-2013/
[51] World Health Organization. (accessed on January 16, 2017) Global Report on Antimicrobial Resistance,2014. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1
)
